PETER, FIRST EPISTLE.

1. Authorship. The author of the document in the NT designated 1 Peter is identified as “Peter, an apostle of Jesus” (1:1). This name occurs frequently in the gospels as the name of one of the twelve apostles. Traditionally and already in the ancient Church, this apostle has been considered the author of 1 Peter. In modern times this identity has been challenged. Principal objections to Petrine authorship have been linguistic, theological, and historical. The style and diction hardly fit the description of the apostle elsewhere. However, if the amanuensisthesis is accepted (see below), this objection is not valid. Some judge that the theology reflects dependence on Paul and hence it is unlikely that the epistle is from the Apostle Peter. There is, however, sufficient uniqueness in 1 Peter in theological concepts to moderate the thesis that Pauline influence is present. The historical setting of the epistle in the time of Nero (at which time Peter and Paul were martyred) is definitely possible—perhaps shortly before the violent outbursts of persecution in the early sixties under Nero. Petrine authorship has been affirmed in modern times by Hort, Selwyn, Walls-Stibbs, Reicke; it has been denied by Dibelius, Goodspeed, and Beare.

The function of amanuenses in ancient correspondence is not fully known, but their use is clearly attested. Silvanus seems to have functioned in this role in the writing of 1 Peter. This is suggested by the wording of 5:12—διὰ̀ Σιλουανοῦ ὑμῖν...ἔγραψα (“through Silvanus I am writing to you”). An amanuensis apparently exercised considerable freedom in the composition and formation of the document. In Acts 4:13 Peter is described as ἀγράμματος, G63. A recent study of this term in the papyri suggests the meaning “illiterate, unable to write (Gr.).”

H. C. Youtie, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 75 (1971), pp. 161-176. Others suggest the meaning “unlearned in literature or rabbinic writings.” In any case, Peter would need the assistance of an amanuensis who could account for the linguistic qualities of the document.

On the other hand, certain items in the epistle strongly suggest Petrine origin. The emphasis on service and suffering (e.g., 2:18-25) is very reminiscent not only of details in the life of Christ but also of the presentation of these details in the gospel of Mark which was written under the influence of Peter. Cullmann has noted that the Petrine speeches in Acts also emphasize the servant motif.

Peter (ET 1953), pp. 67-69. The sayings and experiences of Christ alluded to in the epistle sound much like those of an eyewitness. All these items point to a definite Petrine derivation.

2. Date. Tradition places the death of Peter in a.d. 64 during the Neronic persecutions (see [http://biblegateway/wiki/Peter, Second Epistle of PETER]). The contents of the first epistle, reflecting impending persecutions, suggest a date shortly before the death of Peter. Peter appears to be in Rome (his arrival could hardly be before the middle fifties and some time must also be allowed for the extensive spread of Christianity suggested by the provinces in which the recipients of 1 Peter lived).

3. Destination. The recipients of 1 Peter lived in five provinces in the northern, central and western parts of Asia Minor (modern Turkey): Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia. The NT contains no record of the evangelization of most of this territory. It is possible that Peter may have worked in part of this area during the time between his departure from Jerusalem and arrival in Rome. The people are described as belonging to the Diaspora (διασπορά, G1402). This term in the LXX (cf. John 7:35) describes the dispersion of Jews among the Gentiles. Hence, some have suggested that this term in 1 Peter identifies the recipients as Jewish Christians (e.g., Origen, Greek Fathers, Calvin, Bengel, Weiss). However, such references as “the futile ways inherited from your fathers” (1:18), “once you were no people” (2:10), “among the Gentiles” (2:12) and the catalog of Gentile vices (4:3, 4) can hardly be identified exclusively with Jewish Christians. On the other hand, exclusive identification as Gentiles ignores some of the distinctive Jewish elements (e.g., the use of the OT, the Levitical concept of the Church). Hence, Selwyn’s suggestion that the recipients were “mixed” communities consisting both of Jewish and Gentile Christians

The First Epistle of Peter (1952), p. 44. does justice to the various elements in the epistle. The term Diaspora is used fig. to designate Christians who are scattered in the world far from their heavenly home.

TWNT II, pp. 102-104 (TDNT II, pp. 101-104). This characteristic is also suggested in the designations of the recipients by such terms παρεπίδημοι (“exiles”) (1:1) and πάροικοι (“aliens”) (2:11).

The recipients of this epistle have been suffering various trials and afflictions (1:6) and the possibility of greater and more severe difficulties was very real (3:13-17; 4:12-19). The exact nature of these problems is not known, although there are similarities to those persecutions endured by the early Christians as described in Acts and in some of Paul’s epistles. Selwyn suggests that “the trials besetting the readers of 1 Peter were spasmodic and particular rather than organized on a universal scale, a matter of incidents rather than of policy, at once ubiquitous and incalculable.”

Op. cit., p. 55.

Imperial legislation and organized anti-Christian campaigns by the Romans apparently did not occur before Nero’s outburst in a.d. 64. The unorganized and diverse trials of the recipients of 1 Peter are indicated in 1:6 (“various trials”); 3:14 (“for righteousness’ sake”); 4:12 (“fiery ordeal”) and 4:14 (“reproached for the name of Christ”). In view of the vast territory and varied cultures and religions of the people living in these provinces, it can be concluded that the sufferings endured by the recipients of 1 Peter included a large range of experiences. Peter uses Christ’s suffering as a paradigm for the Christian in his experience (e.g., 2:21).

4. Place. The identification of the place of writing of 1 Peter centers around the interpretation of ἡ ἐν Βαβυλῶνι συνεκλεκτὴ̀ (ἐκκλησία, G1711) (“the chosen [church] in Babylon”) (5:13). Literal identification with Babylon in Mesopotamia is extremely difficult. Most commentators (e.g., Beare, Walls-Stibbs, Selwyn) understand this as a cryptic designation for Rome, as in Revelation 17:5 (cf. v. 9); 18:2, 10, 21. The tradition regarding Peter’s residence and death at Rome is very strong (see Simon Peter).

5. Form. The form of 1 Peter has been the occasion for extensive discussion. In contrast to the Pauline letters where the hortatory section usually follows a doctrinal section, 1 Peter contains exhortations scattered throughout all the chapters. This hortatory feature has suggested to some that basically and originally this may have been a sermon or homily which perhaps was expanded and distributed as a letter. For some, the doxology in 4:11b constitutes a break in the thought—perhaps the end of a sermon and 4:12ff. are a letter appended to the sermon. Others have attempted to identify a baptismal liturgy in the epistle. No doubt baptism was clearly in the mind of the author (e.g., 1:3, 22, 23; 2:2 et al.), but the numerous exhortations relate to the broader aspects of the Christian life, rather than to baptism per se. Moreover, the present form of the document is a letter—with salutation, thanksgiving (praise), message and closing greetings. Portions of the letter may have been parts of sermons, but there are features in the letter which are peculiar to epistolography. Regarding baptism, it seems that the author was seeking to instruct his readers in its meaning, rather than the practice or liturgy of the sacrament. Hence, its application is demonstrated by the frequent exhortations. In this way the epistle becomes a relevant document to its original readers not only, but also for the Church throughout her history. The eschatological prospect of joy must now motivate the Christian to be joyful even in his present trials (3:14; 4:13; 5:1). Actually, the whole gamut of Christian doctrine and ethics is covered in the epistle. The lack of greetings to specific individuals in the last section of the epistle indicates that this was an encyclical letter intended for a fairly large number of churches.

Grammatically, the epistle contains very good Gr. with a fairly varied vocabulary. Participles occur frequently and often are strung along through the sentence (usually much longer than suggested in the trs.). The author used the independent participle for the imperative a number of times. His striking use of the aorist tense in the imperative strikes a note of immediacy and urgency. His text of the OT appears to be the LXX text tradition. No doubt in some of these features the influence of Silvanus appears.

6. Theme. The basic theme of 1 Peter is “the living hope in the midst of suffering.” This paradox (also found in Paul in Romans 5 and Philippians) of rejoicing in suffering is a unique feature of Christianity which the natural man cannot accept. However, the example of Christ inspires the Christian and provides the pattern to follow (2:21). The key word, ἐλπὶ̀ς ζῶσα (“living hope”) (1:3) complements very well Paul’s designation ἡ μακαρία ἐλπίς (“the blessed hope”) (Titus 2:13). This hope should be a present and living reality in the Christians—they should “always be prepared to make a defense to any one who calls [them] to account for the hope that is in [them]” (3:15). Peter emphasizes this hope to encourage the believers in their present sufferings. This living hope in God (1:21) carries one through the fiery trials (4:12) and sufferings. The recipients of 1 Peter are experiencing persecutions and are faced with the prospect of similar sufferings. This is the privilege of the child of God—to be a partaker of Christ’s sufferings (4:13). Peter frequently relates the believer’s own suffering and Christ’s sufferings (2:19, 20b, 21, 23; 3:14, 17; 4:1, 13, 16; 5:1, 9, 10; 1:11). In the light of the living hope possessed by the Christian, he can rejoice in the midst of suffering (1:6, 8; 4:13).

7. Outline. Outline and significant pericopes and passages in 1 Peter:

8. Theological significance. The canonical and theological significance of this epistle relates basically to the theme suggested above—“living hope in the midst of suffering.” The resistance to Christianity as an emerging religious movement gave rise to troubling questions in these churches. What should be the attitude of the Christian to civil authorities who are becoming more and more suspicious about the new movement? Peter answers this question directly in 2:13-17. This passage, along with Romans 13:1-6, has become a locus classicus for Christian citizenship. The key concept is “live as free men...but live as servants of God” (2:16). This relates directly to Peter’s famous dictum before the Sanhedrin, “We must obey God rather than men” (Acts 5:29).

However, these impending dark days undoubtedly made many believers apprehensive about the attitude and reaction they should show. Peter’s response (similar to Paul’s discussion in Rom 5:1-11) is this letter which sets forth a “theology of suffering.” Jesus in His teaching had alluded to it, but Peter develops it in a meaningful way by relating the Christian’s suffering directly to Christ’s suffering. Christ’s suffering was with a view to the redemption of the sinner (2:24f.). This was prophesied in the OT (e.g., the Isaianic Suffering Servant hymns) and predicted by Jesus (e.g., Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33f. and parallels) and in 1 Peter becomes the basis for an exhortation to have the same mind (4:1f.; cf. Phil 2:5-11). Through His suffering the Christian becomes a partaker of Christ’s suffering (4:13; cf. Col 1:24). This privilege is an occasion for both a present joy (1:6, 8; 4:13a) and a future joy and gladness (4:13b). This interpretation of suffering is a unique feature of 1 Peter and provided the recipients with a modus vivendi in the face of impending persecutions and tribulation.

Another significant theological motif in this epistle is the emphasis on the sovereignty of God. The redemptive work of Jesus was foreordained before the foundation of the world (1:2). The people of God are chosen and destined by God (1:2; 2:9). These past demonstrations of God’s sovereignty are the basis for the living hope which looks with confidence to the future and its glory which the Christian will share (5:1, 10). The Christian sees the resolution of the paradox of rejoicing in suffering in such a hope so firmly anchored in the faithfulness of God. This idea, not inconsonant with the teaching of Paul, receives a significant development and application in 1 Peter.

The distinctive hortatory character of 1 Peter

Tenney has listed 34 different commands in the short epistle (New Testament Survey, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans [1961], pp. 351f.). and its relevant address to the basic problems of Christian living in a sinful and hostile world make this a significant document in the lit. of the Early Church. It has a rightful place in the canon. Its theological contributions, often overshadowed by the Pauline writings, are significant and should not be ignored by the Church.

Bibliography R. Johnstone, The First Epistle of Peter (1888); W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire (1893), 279-295; J. H. A. Hart, “The First Epistle General of Peter” in Expositor’s Greek Testament, V (n.d.), 1-121; F. H. Chase, “The First Epistle of Peter” in HDB, III (1902), 779a-796a; C. Bigg, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles of St. Peter and St. Jude in ICC (1903); J. Moffatt, The General Epistles: James, Peter, and Jude in The Moffatt Commentary (1928); J. W. C. Wand, The General Epistles of St. Peter and St. Jude in The Westminster Commentaries (1934); E. G. Selwyn, The First Epistle of Peter (1952); A. M. Stibbs, Commentary on First Epistle of Peter (1959); J. N. D. Kelly, The Epistles of Peter and Jude (1969).