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Who Wrote the Bible? Traditional Views and Modern Scholarship 

Jacob Edson
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Who Wrote the Bible? Traditional Views and Modern Scholarship 

Like most questions about Scripture, the answer to “who wrote the Bible” is complex and multifaceted. There’s much disagreement even among Christians about many of the details. 

But here’s what nearly everyone can agree on: 

  1. The Bible was written over hundreds of years by many different hands in a variety of genres and in several different languages.  
  2. Each of these writers was inspired by God through the Holy Spirit to deliver their testimony — whether it was worship poetry, history, prophecy, biography, or another format.

To dig deeper into the question of who wrote the Bible, this post will look at the concept of “inspiration” and the different ways Christians interpret it.  

We’ll then look at the broad-stroke differences between traditional viewpoints and modern scholarship on Biblical authorship, followed by a survey of traditional and academic viewpoints on who wrote each book of the Bible. 

Did God Write the Bible, or Inspire It? 

Most Christians across time, place, and denomination believe that the Bible was written by humans who were inspired by God to gradually reveal his story and plan for creation — first through the Israelite people in the Old Testament, and then through Jesus Christ and the apostles in the New Testament.  

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In other words, God may have “dictated” the Bible in some form (see below), but most Christians do not believe that he himself wrote it. 

The precise meaning of “inspiration” can vary quite a bit, though, depending on who you ask. Here’s how — and why. 

Inspired: Breathing God’s Spirit 

Take a look at the word “inspired” — in/spir/ed. It comes from the same Latin word as “spirit” — spirare, which originally meant “breath.” And, since the Hebrew word for “breath” also means “wind,” it also connects the Holy Spirit to God’s “breath” or “wind” across the water in Genesis 1. 

(Theology nerd side note: In the Middle Ages, the association of God’s Word with both the Bible and the creative act in Genesis — based on passages such as Romans 1:20 — gave rise to the idea of God’s “Book of Scripture” and “Book of Nature” as both attesting equally to Jesus as God’s Word in John 1.) 

So “inspired” means God “breathed into” the recipients of his Word. Or, to put it another way, the Spirit was in them (cf. 2 Timothy 3:16, 2 Peter 1:21). 

Now, because the words of Scripture were inspired by God, it follows that they are fundamentally true — or infallible. Where the disagreement sometimes arises is how they are true. 

Infallible: Three (or So) Views on God’s Truth in Scripture 

When it comes to God’s Word being “inspired and infallible,” some Christians believe each word was given directly by God and written down verbatim, while others believe that the Bible’s writers were guided by God’s spirit to compose their works.  

These two positions result in different approaches to how believers interpret and engage with the Bible. 

Neither Added nor Subtracted (Deut. 4:2, Rev. 22:18-19) 

Today, many American Christians use the word “inerrant” to describe the Bible — that is, it is completely free from error, in whole and in part, and was received and written exactly as God intended by the people he chose, while preserving their individual personalities and styles. This is often called verbal plenary inspiration. 

A variant is verbal dictation, in which God directly spoke each word of the Bible and people simply wrote them down as-is. However, this is a minority viewpoint.  

(In fact, this is why Christianity has traditionally been much more friendly to translation of Scripture than most other religions such as Islam, which often insist that the language in which their scriptures were “revealed” is the only genuine way to read them.) 

The Spirit, Not the Letter (2 Cor. 3:4-6) 

Other Christians believe that, while the Bible is absolutely true, there may be elements in it that are not entirely accurate.  

This may be because, while the ideas, themes, and narratives of Scripture were inspired in the writers by God, he allowed them to write the words themselves — a position known as dynamic inspiration.  

Or, it could be that parts of the Bible (i.e., matters of faith and morality) were directly inspired, while other parts (such as history and science) were left up to the writers, based on their own personal and cultural understandings — aka, partial inspiration. 

Finally, there are some Christians who believe the Bible was written simply by wise human writers, and “inspiration” is just symbolic language reflecting their wisdom, which was ultimately received from God. This is sometimes known as intuition theory. But, like the verbal dictation theory above, it is a minority viewpoint. 

Upon This Rock (Matt. 16:18-19) 

It should be noted that this conversation is largely a concern of Protestantism (whether evangelical or mainline), and especially American Protestants, as a result of the doctrine of sola scriptura — i.e., that the Bible is the sole source of divine revelation. 

Catholic and Orthodox churches agree that the Bible is inspired and infallible. However, since they also assert the Spirit’s continued activity in the church through apostolic succession (that is, the authority invested in Peter by Jesus in Matt. 16:18-19 and passed down through the generations), their concerns are more about interpreting the Bible in alignment and concordance with church teachings and tradition, rather than how it ought to be understood on its own terms.  

For Catholics, what is known as the “Magisterium” — the church’s divine authority to rule on all matters of faith — has the final say in Biblical interpretation. For Orthodox, interpretation is based on the traditions established by the councils, particularly the Seven Ecumenical Councils of the 4th through 8th centuries AD.

Traditional and Modern Views on Biblical Authorship 

So, barring views such as verbal dictation and intuition theory, by far most Christians believe that the Bible was written by human beings inspired one way or another by God.  

But which human beings? 

For most books of the Bible, there is a traditional popular view of who the author or authors were, and for many of them, there is a somewhat different guess based on modern (or ancient) research. 

  • Traditional authorship is typically based either on a self-ascription in the text (e.g., Song of Songs 1:1), or a cross-reference from another Biblical text (e.g., Lamentations and 2 Chronicles 35:25), or extra-Biblical teachings (typically from the Jewish writings called the Talmud — e.g., Moses writing the Pentateuch). 
  • Modern scholarship attempts to establish Biblical authorship by taking a step back from the traditional understanding, conducting a very close read of various versions of each book (e.g., Hebrew, Greek, Syriac, etc.), and comparing it to other contemporary works both in and outside of the Bible.  

Modern scholarship doesn’t always identify a different author than tradition. Often they simply leave it as “anonymous.” Establishing authorship from an academic perspective is complicated by the tendency of ancient authors to: 

  1. edit and combine texts together,  
  2. write under someone else’s name as a way to honor them (sort of how we use “dedications” today), and  
  3. put down in writing things that had been transmitted orally for generations or even centuries.

These issues are especially challenging in the prophets. In many cases it’s difficult to tell how much of the text is from the original prophet and how much, if any, was added later. 

Regardless, it’s important to understand that none of these habits were seen as suspicious in the ancient world the way we might view them today, and none suggest on their own that those authors and editors could not all have been divinely inspired — as was indeed the traditional view. (See the section on traditional scholarship below.) 

Either way, it’s ultimately up to the individual reader and believer to read, study, talk to their pastors, and decide which story seems the most convincing. (Or, on the other hand, allow the anonymity of the Biblical writers to speak for itself.) 

What About Traditional Scholarship? 

It’s sometimes supposed that it took modern secular scholars to finally point out inconsistencies in Scripture that had somehow been missed for nearly two millennia. But as early as the 2nd century AD, Christian theologians were grappling with such passages (after all, these guys often had the entire Bible memorized front to back — often in its original languages). 

For example, the Epistle to the Hebrews was ascribed to Paul by many in the early church — but as early as the 3rd and 4th centuries century AD, authorities such as Origen and Eusebius were already noting how little its style resembled Paul’s. Today, the epistle is most often considered to be from one of Paul’s close associates or students, but probably not from the Apostle himself. 

Who Wrote Each Book of the Bible? (Traditional and Modern Views) 

With all of that in mind, here is a list of each book of the Bible, with the traditional and modern views of their authorship. 

Old Testament 

Torah/Pentateuch (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy) 

  • Traditional author: Moses (Talmud) 
  • Modern theories: Probably a combination of multiple oral sources (one of whom may have been Moses) 

Joshua 

  • Traditional: Joshua (Talmud) 
  • Modern: Calvin rejected Joshua as the author; consensus today is an anonymous Deuteronomistic historian during the time of Josiah or later 

Judges 

  • Traditional: Anonymous 
  • Modern: Deuteronomistic historian compiling written and oral sources 

Ruth 

  • Traditional: Samuel (Talmud) 
  • Modern: Anonymous 

1 & 2 Samuel 

  • Traditional: Samuel, Nathan, and Gad (1 Chron. 29:29-30) 
  • Modern: Deuteronomistic historian compiling of written oral sources 

1 & 2 Kings 

  • Traditional: Jeremiah (Talmud) 
  • Modern: Anonymous historian compiling written and oral sources 

1 & 2 Chronicles 

  • Traditional: Ezra/Nehemiah (Talmud) 
  • Modern: Levite priests probably writing (or compiling) post-exile 

Ezra/Nehemiah 

  • Traditional: Ezra  
  • Modern: Ezra and/or a later compiler 

Esther 

  • Traditional: Mordecai and a later editor (Talmud) 
  • Modern: Anonymous writer 

Job 

  • Traditional: Moses? (Talmud) 
  • Modern: Anonymous writer 

Psalms 

  • Traditional: Various composers including David, Solomon, Asaph, and more 
  • Modern: Various composers possibly including the above 

Proverbs 

Ecclesiastes 

Song of Songs 

  • Traditional: Solomon (Song 1:1) 
  • Modern: Anonymous writer or compiler 

Isaiah 

  • Traditional: Isaiah (Is. 1:1) 
  • Modern: Isaiah and possibly other prophets (disciples?) prophesying under his name, and/or writing down and compiling his and others’ verbal prophecies long after his death 

Jeremiah 

  • Traditional: Jeremiah (Jer. 1:1-3) 
  • Modern: Jeremiah and possibly others writing down and/or compiling various material sometime after his death 

Lamentations  

Ezekiel 

  • Traditional: Ezekiel (Ez. 1:3) 
  • Modern: Ezekiel, possibly compiled by his disciples 

Daniel 

  • Traditional: Daniel and anonymous narrator 
  • Modern: Various authors over time, possibly including Daniel (Dn. 2-6) and other scribes (Dn. 1, 7-12) 

Hosea 

  • Traditional: Hosea (Hos. 1:1) 
  • Modern: Hosea and maybe others 

Joel 

  • Traditional: Joel (Jl. 1:1) 
  • Modern: Joel and maybe others 

Amos 

  • Traditional: Amos (Am. 1:1) 
  • Modern: Amos and maybe others 

Obadiah 

  • Traditional: Obadiah (Ob. 1:1) 
  • Modern: Obadiah 

Jonah 

  • Traditional: Anonymous narrator 
  • Modern: Anonymous narrator probably satirizing prophetic behavior 

Micah 

  • Traditional: Micah (Mic. 1:1) 
  • Modern: Micah and probably others 

Nahum 

  • Traditional: Nahum (Na. 1:1) 
  • Modern: Nahum and maybe others 

Habakkuk 

  • Traditional: Habakkuk (Hab. 1:1) 
  • Modern: Nahum and maybe others 

Zephaniah 

  • Traditional: Zephaniah (Zeph. 1:1) 
  • Modern: Zephaniah and maybe others 

Haggai 

  • Traditional: Haggai (Hag. 1:1) 
  • Modern: Haggai 

Zechariah 

  • Traditional: Zechariah (Zech. 1:1) 
  • Modern: Zechariah (Zech. 1-8) and maybe others (Zech. 9-14) 

Malachi 

  • Traditional: Malachi (Mal. 1:1) 
  • Modern: Malachi 

New Testament 

Matthew 

  • Traditional: Matthew 
  • Modern: Matthew or another (second-generation?) follower of Jesus 

Mark 

  • Traditional: Mark 
  • Modern: Mark 

Luke 

  • Traditional: Luke the “beloved physician” (Col. 4:14) 
  • Modern: Luke (probably) 

John 

  • Traditional: John the son of Zebedee (identified with the “Beloved Disciple” by Irenaeus in 2nd century AD; cf. John 13:23–26, etc.) 
  • Modern: Probably John the son of Zebedee, but the “Beloved Disciple” could be John the Elder, Lazarus, or someone else 

Acts of the Apostles 

  • Traditional: Luke 
  • Modern: Luke 

Romans 

  • Traditional: Paul 
  • Modern: Paul 

1 & 2 Corinthians 

  • Traditional: Paul 
  • Modern: Paul 

Galatians 

  • Traditional: Paul 
  • Modern: Paul 

Ephesians 

  • Traditional: Paul 
  • Modern: Paul or a Pauline disciple 

Philippians 

  • Traditional: Paul 
  • Modern: Paul 

Colossians 

  • Traditional: Paul 
  • Modern: Paul 

1 & 2 Thessalonians 

  • Traditional: Paul 
  • Modern: Paul (or maybe a Pauline disciple for 2 Thess.) 

1 & 2 Timothy 

  • Traditional: Paul 
  • Modern: Paul or a later Pauline disciple 

Titus 

  • Traditional: Paul 
  • Modern: Paul or a later Pauline disciple 

Philemon 

  • Traditional: Paul 
  • Modern: Paul 

Hebrews 

  • Traditional: Unknown — guesses included Paul, Barnabas, Stephen, Apollos, and Priscilla 
  • Modern: Unknown — probably not Paul, but maybe Silas, Apollos, or Priscilla

James 

  • Traditional: James the Just, brother of Jesus 
  • Modern: James the brother of Jesus, or another James 

1 & 2 Peter 

  • Traditional: Peter 
  • Modern: Peter or a later disciple 

1, 2 & 3 John 

  • Traditional: John the son of Zebedee (the “beloved disciple” and author of John’s gospel) 
  • Modern: John the son of Zebedee, a later disciple, or another John 

Jude 

  • Traditional: Jude, brother of James and Jesus 
  • Modern: Jude (probably) 

Revelation 

  • Traditional: John the son of Zebedee (now aka John of Patmos due to his exile) 
  • Modern: John of Patmos, but there’s some debate about whether he was the same John as the author of the Gospel and Letters of John 

Conclusion: Who Wrote the Bible 

The Bible is the inspired and infallible Word of God, written by many people over hundreds of years from more than 1,000 years before Christ’s birth to about 70 years after his death.  

That’s the simple version. As to what “inspired” and “infallible” mean, and who each of those people were — I hope this article has given you the tools to better understand the issues at stake. Through prayerful research and discussions with your pastor and/or study group, you can reach your own conclusions. 

Ultimately, though, what matters is not so much who wrote the Bible, but how you read it, engage with it, and let it speak to you in your own life. 

Bible Gateway Plus can help you more deeply engage with the Bible both spiritually and academically, with dozens of study resources to help you better understand the origins of God’s Word and its transformative power in your life today. 

Jesus Bible Devotional 3: Act II — Revolt

Passion Publishing
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Jesus Bible Devotional 3: Act II — Revolt

If you’ve ever felt like you’re too sinful to be loved by God, then spend some time reading the Bible. The Bible is a record book of some epic sinning.

In just the fourth chapter, one brother murders another in a jealous rage (Genesis 4). The Egyptians brutally enslaved the Israelites and committed infanticide (Exodus 1). The Pharisees and Sadducees distorted God’s law and exploited their positions of power (Matthew 3:7-10). Even David, a man whom God appointed as King over Israel, raped and murdered (2 Samuel 11).  

Separated from God…

So, Act II in God’s story is called Revolt because it’s about how sin creates a separation between humanity and God that we cannot repair.

“Therefore, just as sin entered the world through one man, and death through sin, and in this way death came to all people, because all sinned…” — Romans 5:12 (NIV)

God’s image-bearing creation — humans — revolted against their loving creator, condemning ourselves to eternity without him. It started in the Garden of Eden when Adam and Eve deliberately disobeyed God’s command (Genesis 3:1-8). As today’s passage says, “sin entered the world,” through them and “death came to all people, because all sinned.” 

…and Pursued by Him

But this act in God’s story contains some good news, too.

As soon as Adam and Eve committed that first sin, God began to pursue them. He immediately set a plan in motion for their redemption, promising that one day, a savior would come (Genesis 3:15).

God still pursues and redeems sinners.

If you take a minute to honestly, quietly reflect upon your life, you can probably think of sinful things you’ve done. Lies you’ve told. Things you’ve stolen. Times when you’ve treated others cruelly. Scripture is clear, “all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God” (Romans 3:23).

But just as God provided for Adam and Eve, just as he freed the Israelites and forgave King David, so God will free, forgive, and provide for you, too. While we revolt, God redeems. 

Reflection 

When has sin made it feel like God was far away? What did you do? 

Can you think of something you want to confess to God right now? 

Read 1 John 1:9. Take a minute and meditate on how God has forgiven you of your sin.

Prayer 

Dear God, THANK YOU for forgiving me. You know what I’ve done. You know how far I can stray sometimes, yet you love me and forgive me. Thank you for seeking me out when I’m hiding in shame. Thank you for being a god who frees and forgives! Amen. 

Read the rest of the Jesus Bible Devotional series — and go deeper with the full Jesus Bible Study Series.

Encounter the living Jesus in all of Scripture through The Jesus Bible — the Bible that lifts Jesus up as the lead story and encourages you to faithfully follow him as you participate in his story. Also available as part of Bible Gateway Plus!

The Spirit and Circle of Divisiveness Today: A Lesson from Corinth

Scot McKnight
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The Spirit and Circle of Divisiveness Today: A Lesson from Corinth

In the backdrop leading up to Paul’s first letter to the Corinthians, the church at Corinth — which means a collection of house churches in Corinth — fell into divisions and factions.

Some of their divisions were over Paul. It looks like some preferred Apollos and others Peter. Each faction knew it was right, and the others, especially Paul, were wrong. We need to describe that divisiveness, but I will do so with an eye on divisions in churches today.

8 Points on the Circle of Division

Many churches have suffered from a bout or two (or more) with divisiveness. The spirit of divisiveness remains consistent from group to group. What follows has been aided by more than a half dozen pastors who read this article, commented on it, and gave me feedback. One pastor who read this wrote me a note to say this sketch was prophetic in that it described to a T what occurred in his institution. 

First, Two ‘Nots’

Briefly, two ‘nots’:

Disagreements over decisions made by leaders are not the same as division. Disagreements can become divisive. When discussion with the leader does not accomplish what a person wants to happen, a seed is sown that can lead to division. Learning to tolerate and process differences and disagreements is a mark of a healthy church.

Uniformity from the leader throughout a church is not the same as unity. Uniformity is coerced and is top-down; unity is Spirit-prompted and celebrates diversity and difference.

1. Power, Status, Honor 

First, in Corinth, the heartbeat of the divisive group was the quest for status and honor. It was a zero-sum game driven by a scarcity mindset. That is, if you got the glory, I didn’t.

In our world, that sense of honor comes to expression in the rarely stated desire for power, for authority, and for control. The dividers want to be in charge, and they use discord to pave their path to power. When power is understood, as it often is, as authority over and power over, the culture is set for divisiveness to appear.

A desire to seize or work for power over a church often flows from a grievance or slight, an act of a leader making a decision the aggrieved didn’t like, and a grudge forms that prompts the person to retaliate.

Freedom and Authoritarianism

One of the watchwords for the divisive is freedom, which is as Christian as it is American. The watchword of freedom usually gets an echo in a charge of authoritarianism on the part of those they think ought not to be in power. Behind closed doors the divisive will use terms like “autocrat,” “tyrant,” and “dictator.”

The plea by the divisive for freedom is their smokescreen for power. If they do win, as soon as the divisive gain power, they squash the freedom of those whom they fought against. Those who complain the most about unchecked power are those wanting the power for themselves.

Nearly all the divisive either diminish their participation or hide from accountability and responsibility for what they have done. Those who set the place on fire and then escape are not deemed heroes for escaping. Division and the power desired by the divisive are fleshly and unspiritual. Virtue and divisiveness cannot hold hands.

2. Clique and Coalition 

Second, disagreement becomes divisive when discussion(s) with the leader or leaders does not lead to what the critic wants. A desire for power begins to build a coalition that turns into a clique of like-minded disrupters who go to battle against the leaders.

A theme is the old adage: “an enemy of my enemy is a friend.” Friends in the tribe like this can be found by dropping little gossips into a conversation to see who might bite. Unlikely but very superficial relations form in these coalitions.

Take Care to Avoid Disruptive Groups

People in the church need to become aware of the danger of passive participation in such groups. Not speaking up about the circle of division, when they are noticed, puts a person in the pocket. Hence, a pocket of division, a tribalism, occurs in a church when a disruptive group is formed.

Often, such a group creates a sense of chaos, discord, and disunity in the church; the sense that things are out of control. The church leadership will experience division as a struggle for power with others, and the leadership will often need to take action. Disunifiers are shaped by the flesh. 

3. Politicizing Tension Points 

Third, the tension points become politicized. They become zero-sum games.

Far too often the tension points are minor issues depicted as major gospel problems. They then become determinative for the divisions. But a wedge can be pressed into service to divide groups over some point. Before long, that point becomes the point, regardless of its theological and practical importance.

Sides are then taken over the tension point. God is with them; God is against the pastor or leader they want to dismiss. Everything then gets connected to the tension point. He chose—as the leader, as one with the institutional authority to do so, as one who thought he or she had good reasons for the decision—to release a staff member.

Disagreement by the circle of division resorts to the language of “tyranny” or “dictatorship,” then tyranny becomes the rally cry. Or “heresy” or “false teacher” when the tension point is some truly minor issue in theology or Bible interpretation. What is truly minor and what is major often are confused in the faction of division. Malice and the desire for power drive politicizing these tension points. 

4. Leader of the Clique 

Fourth, someone leads in nearly all divisions that occur in a church. The person, since he or she wants power, often reveals signs of narcissism. Be warned: it’s easy to use the term, but it’s a diagnosis that requires a professional.

People with narcissistic tendencies are noted by selfishness, a sense of entitlement, a lack of empathy, bold and bald using of others, attracting sycophants, a hypersensitivity to criticism, and especially a desire for personal admiration and glory. When someone over them makes a decision they don’t like, the narcissist will diminish the person who made the choice.

Remember, the leader of a circle of division wants power. His associates, which at times become nothing less than allegiance, want him or her to have power. Someone, or perhaps a small inner circle, steers the ship of division. Such persons degrade leaders in order to build themselves up.

Oppose Divisive Leaders

The leader and his inner circle need to be called out for leading the sins of arrogance and division. Opposing the leader of a division is right and good. Some divisive persons love disruption and destruction for no other reason than they love chaos and do not like to be in a system that contains them.

The participants in the circle of division usually deny or diminish the very criticisms that describe them. They often then turn the same criticisms onto those who resist their divisiveness. 

5. Words 

Fifth, the primary modes of operation for the circle of division include gossip about leaders or others, arguing with the leaders, questioning the credentials and ability of the leaders, the desire to attract others in the church to their circle, creating a culture of complaining or “sealioning,” backstabbing and degrading leaders, and labeling the leader with demeaning terms. Labels and names that ridicule often form in the circle of division for those on the outside.

Often this circle of division will scapegoat one person or a few persons as the entire problem. Scapegoating, which is very much like canceling, leads to demonizing. None of these verbal habits emerge from the fruit of the Spirit. 

6. End Justifies the Means 

Sixth, the circle of division will work together against the leader(s) in order to dismantle authority, degrade the leader(s), and work to get the leader(s) dismissed. Following the procedures matters far less than the desired result of dismissal. For them the end justifies the means.

When dismissed, the leaders in the circle of division, realizing the depth of their dirty work, often express sadness but internally delight in their victory. Their togetherness strengthens the divisive group’s sense of being right.

But togetherness does not make division right. Their togetherness means only that they are now a faction of the flesh. Good leaders will need to counter these activities to discover the nature and content of the division, and to counter the fleshly divisions. 

7. Their Own Narrative 

Seventh, in working together and thinking they are right, the circle of division tells itself a story: it forms its own narrative of the church or institution, claims the high road, refuses to admit their gossip, quotes the Bible for their viewpoints, and contends they are fighting for justice.

The circle of division will nearly always tell some truths. Those truths are usually exaggerated or distorted. Only an independent observer, someone marked by wisdom and social perception, can root out the most accurate narrative. Most of the time, the dividers don’t even know the deeper, more accurate narrative. 

8. Grandstanding 

Eighth, the circle of power, and especially its leader, participate in grandstanding, which is a desire to be perceived as virtuous prompted by publicly affirming their own virtues (see Tosi and Warmke, Grandstanding).

They may host a dinner at one of their homes where they can affirm one another. They may even go to social media. What matters is that they want to be affirmed for the very moral claims they make while bragging about their actions.

Here is a definition of grandstanding from a study by philosophy professors Justin Tosi and Brandon Warmke:

  • Grandstanders want to impress others with their moral qualities. We call this the Recognition Desire. 
  • Grandstanders try to satisfy that desire by saying something in public moral discourse. We call this public display the Grandstanding Expression.  
  • You can therefore think of grandstanding in terms of a simple formula: 
  • Grandstanding = Recognition Desire + Grandstanding Expression 
  • Grandstanders try to get others to think of them as morally respectable. Sometimes they want to be thought of as one of the gang. Other times, they want to be thought of as morally exceptional. Either way, they usually want to be seen as morally better than others (Tosi, Warmke, Grandstanding, 15). 

When the circle of division, with its strong leaders guiding the circle, doesn’t get its way, some leave, some continue to fight until they get what they want, and some learn the lesson that cliques deny the gospel itself. The first four chapters of 1 Corinthians, not to ignore other passages in Paul’s letters, can provide guidance for leaders facing factions in their church or organization. 

Pockets of Tov

I have assumed in the above that Paul was more or less on the side of the angels and that his opponents in Corinth were opposing what was good. At times, a pocket forms that is itself the good culture. That pocket of tov (or goodness) opposes a toxic leader or leadership.

1 Corinthians: Living Together in a Church Divided by Scot McKnight book cover

However, how pockets of tov behave in comparison to a circle of division (a pocket of toxicity and power mongering) is completely different, even if resistance and dissidence and disagreements are common to both groups. 

To learn more, read 1 Corinthians: Living Together in a Church Divided, a Bible commentary by Scot McKnight, in which he explains the historical context of Corinth’s divided churches, connects the book to the larger story of the Bible, and provides parallels that bring the story alive to us today.

1 Corinthians: Living Together in a Church Divided is published by HarperCollins Christian Publishing, which is also the parent company of Bible Gateway.

Look at the Book: 1 Samuel [Infographic] 

Chris Fann
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Look at the Book: 1 Samuel [Infographic] 

Welcome to Bible Gateway’s weekly Look at the Book series of short blog posts and infographics introducing you to the books of the Bible. In this post we’ll dive into the first half of the Samuel scroll, known in modern Bibles as 1 Samuel. 

Scroll to the bottom if you’d prefer to see (and save) this article as an infographic. You’ll also find a handy 30-day reading guide. Or, for a challenge, you can do it in one week using the 7-day reading guide below. 

Summary 

The people refuse to listen to God and make the rough transition from the time of the judges to the reign of Saul, whom God calls Samuel to anoint as Israel’s first earthly king. 

  • Category: History 
  • Theme: Kingship 
  • Timeline: About 1100-1000 BC 
  • Written: No clear indication of author or date of composition 

Key Verse 

“The Lord does not look at the things people look at. People look at the outward appearance, but the Lord looks at the heart.” — 1 Samuel 16:7 (NIV) 

A King in Israel 

The events covered in 1 Samuel span the sovereignty of God answering Hannah’s prayer for a son, to allowing the Philistines to defeat Israel, to the Israelites’ demand for a king, to David slaying the giant and becoming the rightful king of Israel. 

7 Day Reading Guide 

(See 30-day guide below.) 

Consider 

The books of 1 and 2 Samuel span about 135 years of history. During those years, Israel was transformed from a loosely knit group of tribes under judges to a united nation under the reign of a centralized monarchy. 

Access the rest of the series here. Browse Bible studies for each book of the Bible. Or right-click on the infographic below to download and save the image for your reference.   

Infographic depicting major themes and content from 1 Samuel

Jesus Bible Devotional 2: Act I — Beginnings

Passion Publishing
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Jesus Bible Devotional 2: Act I — Beginnings

How many empty words do you think you’ve spoken in your lifetime? All of us are guilty of them. We mumble (or rage) in our cars about traffic. We make cutting, derisive comments about spouses or other family members under our breath. We complain openly about our bosses and gossip about others. We may not do all of these, but if we’re truly honest with ourselves, we’re all guilty of empty words. 

Undoubtedly, you have also suffered because of someone else’s empty words. The parent who brushed you off when you needed love and attention. The partner who flippantly wounded you. The abuse of someone who aimed to hurt you. Everyone has suffered somehow. 

God’s Words Are Never Empty

From the start of Act I, the story reveals something unique about God: his words are never empty. God’s words create (Genesis 1). God’s words bring life and love (Genesis 2). God’s words share wisdom (Proverbs 2:6-8). Years later, the disciple John actually calls Jesus “the Word,” who “was God” and “with God in the beginning” (John 1:1-2). 

During this week-long overview of God’s story, pay special attention to the creative, loving, wisdom-sharing nature of Jesus, the living Word of God. Jesus plays a role in every story throughout the Bible. Though humanity is filled with empty words and destructive speech, God is not. Through Jesus, “all things were made,” and “in him was life, and that life was the light of all mankind” (John 1:3-4).  

Reflection 

Read Psalm 33:6-9.

How does this Psalm affect your understanding of the nature of God? What does it reveal about him? 

Do you believe that God will never use his words to tear you down? Why or why not? 

Can you think of a time when you’ve been ridiculed, shamed, or lied to? Would you share that pain with God today through prayer?  

Prayer 

Dear God, thank you for being loving, creative, and wise. Thank you for beginning your story with creativity and life. Please fix the broken places where the words of others have wounded me. Please speak to me again and again, and enable my spirit to hear your voice. Amen. 

Read the rest of the Jesus Bible Devotional series — and go deeper with the full Jesus Bible Study Series.

Encounter the living Jesus in all of Scripture through The Jesus Bible — the Bible that lifts Jesus up as the lead story and encourages you to faithfully follow him as you participate in his story. Also available as part of Bible Gateway Plus!

5 Questions on the Book of Revelation: Q&A

Matt Chandler
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5 Questions on the Book of Revelation: Q&A

For many people, Revelation is a bit intimidating. It’s a big book with a lot of weird characters in it.

And yet, for the last 2000 years, the book of Revelation has put courage into the spines of Christians across the world — regardless of the time and period in which they lived.

Revelation spoke to them and let them know that despite what they were seeing and experiencing, Christ was on his throne, and he was ruling on high, and they were able to live faithfully in the moment of time that God had placed them.

What Is the Book of Revelation? 

That’s an easy question to answer because John, the author, actually tells us what it is. In Revelation 1:4 he says that it has been written to the churches in Asia.

And so, what we see right out of the gate is Revelation is a letter to a specific group of people living at a specific time and in a specific place, much like Ephesians and Philippians or the book of Romans. This is written to a specific group of people.  

Now here’s why that’s important.

It’s important because Revelation was written for us, but it wasn’t written to us. That means what we read in this book cannot mean to us what it did not mean to them.

This letter was given to the people of God across Christian history. It wasn’t just given to people who just happened to be here right before the return of Christ. 

What Was Happening at the Writing of this Letter? 

Revelation was written around AD 96, and for the 30 years before that, Christians had been subjugated to some of the most brutal torture and persecution imaginable. It started in AD 65 under Nero and only got worse later under Vespasian. By AD 92, Domitian took over and he took it to another level.

Now, throw into that mix that in AD 70, not only does Jerusalem fall, burned to the ground by the Romans, but in that same year, Paul, Peter and Timothy are all killed by the Roman empire.  

It’s probably hard for us to get our minds around 30 years of perpetual torture, arrest, unfair laws. Domitian actually set a series of laws that people across the empire had to come to his temple, take a pinch of incense, sprinkle it in an altar, and say that he was the king of kings and Lord of lords. And he set laws that if Christians were found guilty of any crime, on top of being punished for that crime, they would have to recant their faith or face even harsher punishments than what their crime might’ve demanded in that moment and time.  

Who Were the Recipients of this Letter? 

The book was written to seven specific churches in seven different locations across the ancient near East. Each one of these churches was feeling an immense amount of pressure to sell out, an immense amount of pressure to fit in. The sheer pressure to just compromise a little for peace, just quiet down a little bit, just shrink back in order to not be persecuted and be able to raise their children the way we wanted to raise their children.

And yet, in each one of these churches, John writes with the words of Jesus for them to overcome, for them to stay strong. These seven churches fit into three categories.  

1. Faith of the Head, but not of the Heart

The first thing that we see is, like in the church at Ephesus, they’re biblically knowledgeable. They know the word, they’ve got good doctrine, but their hearts have gone cold. They have an intellectual faith, but their heart is no longer in love with Jesus.

And Jesus rebukes them for this and tells them to return to their first love, to get back with a heart inflamed for his name and renowned, not just doctrinal correctness, but a heart for king Jesus.  

2. Ethical Indifference

The second category are the four churches that are most strongly rebuked here are Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, and Laodicea. And what they’re doing, and you can see this everywhere right now in our current cultural moment, they know the gospel, they know Jesus, and yet they find themselves indifferent to His commands. They are fitting in with the Roman Empire regarding their sexual ethic, and about how they do their economic system. They are perpetually surrendering to the force of the Roman Empire and living an indifferent Christian life.  

3. Faithful but Exhausted

The third category are the last two churches. I pray if you’re going to find yourself anywhere among the churches listed in chapter two and three, that you find yourself here. We see in Smyrna and Philadelphia, they’re faithful, they love him, they’re walking in correct doctrine, they’re just tired and weary and exhausted.

Courage to Overcome

And Jesus says to each of the seven churches, he encourages them to overcome, offers them rewards for overcoming and then rebukes them either for their indifference or their lack of love. But for those who are just weary and falling away, he whispers into their souls that he sees them, that he knows them, and he won’t let them go.  

Isn’t Revelation About the Future? 

Revelation is a letter, but it’s not just a letter. If you look back at Revelation 1:3, you’ll see that this is a prophecy.

Now if you think of like the major prophets, Jeremiah, Isaiah, they’re not saying, “This is what the future looks like.” They’re saying, “thus sayeth the Lord.”

And that’s the way Revelation is prophetic. It’s not so much just saying, this is what the future is going to be — although there’s some of that in the book. It’s saying, this is what the Lord God wants you to hear and wants you to be confident of in this moment.  

What Is a ‘Revelation’?

So, the book is a letter. It is a prophecy. And then lastly, and you see this in Revelation 1:1, it is a “revelation,” or the Greek word apocalypsis. It is an apocalypse, where we’re going to find our minds being stretched.

The purpose of apocalyptic literature is to unveil, to make clear, to let you see what is unseen. Apocalyptic literature is also wildly strange. It uses images and strange scenes to provoke our hearts and our imaginations to feel and experience things that are different than just intellectual ascent. And so, it’s not uncommon in apocalyptic literature for things to get a little strange.  

What’s the Purpose of Revelation? 

Things aren’t always as they seem — both now and in the future.

The primary purpose of the Book of Revelation is to show readers of every generation of Christians between the first century and the return of Christ that things are not always as they seem, despite the data that we see and despite what we’re experiencing in the world.

Cover of 'The Overcomers' with overlay advertising a free 5-day devotional

If I could put a catchphrase here, I would say “fear not tomorrow, for tomorrow is already won.”

Want more from Matt Chandler? Check out his bible study on the book of Revelation, The Overcomers — and watch the full first session of the study for free. 

Plus, sign up for a free 5-day devotional based on The Overcomers.

Look at the Book: Ruth [Infographic] 

Chris Fann
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Look at the Book: Ruth [Infographic] 

Welcome to Bible Gateway’s weekly Look at the Book series of short blog posts and infographics introducing you to the books of the Bible. This post will explore the book of Ruth, which takes place during the time of Judges. Though a small book, Ruth has some important themes about God’s redemptive plan for humanity. 

Scroll to the bottom if you’d prefer to see (and save) this article as an infographic. You’ll also find a handy 30-day reading guide. Or, for a challenge, you can do it in one week using the 7-day reading guide below. 

Summary 

Set during the time of the Judges, Ruth portrays the promise of a life far beyond our expectations. As you read, take note of the themes of faithful love and redemption that prevail as events unfold for an Israelite family. 

  • Category: History 
  • Theme: Redemption 
  • Timeline: Sometime during Judges, 1375-1050 BC 
  • Written: During the reign of David, 1011-971 BC, possibly by Samuel 

Key Verse 

“Where you go I will go, and where you stay I will stay. Your people will be my people and your God my God.” — Ruth 1:16 (NIV) 

Major Theological Themes 

  • Ruth, as a Moabite, shows that God’s redemptive plan extends beyond the Jews to Gentiles. 
  • Women are co-heirs with men of God’s salvation grace. 
  • God’s sovereign and providential care of seemingly unimportant people at apparently insignificant times may later prove to be crucial to accomplishing God’s will. 

7 Day Reading Guide 

(See 30-day guide below.) 

Consider 

Ruth arrived in Bethlehem as a foreigner, became a maidservant, married Boaz, and was included in the physical lineage of Christ. 

Access the rest of the series here. Browse Bible studies for each book of the Bible. Or right-click on the infographic below to download and save the image for your reference.

Infographic depicting major themes and content from the book of Ruth

What Language Was the Bible Written In? 

Jacob Edson
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What Language Was the Bible Written In? 

The Bible was originally written in the ancient languages of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek over a period of many centuries. Although sometimes referred to as “dead” languages (because they are not commonly spoken in the same format today), all three of these languages are very much alive.  

Though they’ve changed a lot since Biblical times, descendants of these languages are still actively used today in the same parts of the world the events of the Bible happened in. And of course, even the ancient words are alive with the dynamic presence of the Holy Spirit flowing through them. 

This post will help you gain a basic understanding of the Bible’s original languages.  

Of course, a single blog post won’t be enough to actually learn Greek or Hebrew — that would take years of careful study! But learning a little about them can provide invaluable background to the cultures and civilizations God chose to receive his unique revelation.  

And it can help clarify some of the challenges translators face to make the words of Scripture readable in modern English, without changing — or losing — the depth and nuance of their meaning. 

What Was the Language of the Old Testament?  

The Old Testament was written almost entirely in Hebrew, the ancient Middle Eastern language spoken by the Jewish people. A few parts of the Old Testament — namely, Daniel 2:4b–7:28 and Ezra 4:8–6:18 and 7:12–26 — were written in Aramaic.  

Hebrew: The Language of the Israelites 

As Biblical Hebrew gradually evolved into Aramaic and other regional languages (and as Jews increasingly assimilated into local communities in Europe, the Middle East, and elsewhere), it stopped being used for everyday speech long before New Testament times.  

But it remained in use liturgically in Jewish communities (who only ever read the Scriptures in their original languages) until it was intentionally revived by European Jews in the late 19th to early 20th centuries. 

Aramaic: The Language of Jesus 

Aramaic is a descendant of Hebrew that was widely spoken in the Middle East in the centuries leading up to the birth of Jesus. In fact, Aramaic was Jesus’s native language — the one he used to deliver his teachings to his disciples. It is still spoken by a few scattered communities in the Middle East today. 

Reading the Old Testament in Its Original Languages 

Hebrew and Aramaic are both part of the Semitic family of languages, which also includes Arabic. They are written right-to-left (unlike English, which is of course left-to-right).  

One of their unique characteristics is that, in their written forms, they originally didn’t include vowels at all. (Modern Hebrew now usually adds them in.) Because ancient languages typically also didn’t use spaces or lowercase letters, this makes reading the Old Testament in its most ancient, original form extremely challenging.  

MGNRDNGVRTHNGLKTHS — backwards — for hundreds of pages (or scrolls)! 

What Was the Language of the New Testament?  

The New Testament was written in Greek — specifically, in a dialect called Koine (or common) Greek, to distinguish it from the more complex, sophisticated Greek of ancient Athens and Sparta. 

Why “common”? And why wasn’t it written in Jesus’s (and his disciples’) own language of Aramaic? 

Greek: The Language of the Mediterranean 

After Alexander the Great conquered Judaea around the 330s BC, the region became increasingly influenced by Greek culture and language. By the time of Jesus — when the area was under Roman rule — the entire eastern Mediterranean spoke some form of Greek (in addition to their native tongues).  

Its widespread use made it a convenient choice for anyone trying to communicate or do business across cultures. However, since many of these people spoke it as a second language, it became mixed with many different regional dialects to create a simplified, standardized version of the Greek compared to what was spoken in Greece itself. (This is actually very similar to how American English evolved in the early colonies.) 

Greek: The Language of the Disciples (Sort Of) 

When Jesus’s disciples began traveling to spread the Good News of his resurrection, they mostly used Koine Greek to reach the widest population they could — even if it wasn’t the language they used with each other. 

In some cases, like the Gospel of Mark, the unique style (such as starting many sentences with kai, “and” — a standard format in Aramaic but very unusual in Greek) shows how the story was originally told in Aramaic, and then written down in Greek as it spread beyond the region of Galilee where Jesus lived and performed his miracles and ministries. 

Were Any Parts of the Bible Written in Latin?  

It may surprise you to learn that none of the Bible was written in Latin — despite Judaea being under Roman rule. Though parts of the Bible started being translated into Latin soon after they appeared in Greek, a complete Latin Bible didn’t exist until the early 400s AD, when Jerome completed his Vulgate.  

The Vulgate caught on quickly and became the exclusive way the Bible was read and transmitted in western Europe for centuries. 

When Was the Bible First Translated into English? 

The first complete translation of the entire Bible into English was Wycliffe’s Bible, released in the late 1300s. John Wycliffe and his followers based their translation on the Vulgate, since the original Hebrew and Greek texts were still unavailable in the West. Because it had to be hand-copied and distributed, it didn’t reach a wide audience, but it was still enough to earn Wycliffe a condemnation for heresy 30 years after his death. 

After that, it was over 100 years before another comprehensive attempt was made to translate the Bible into English. William Tyndale published his English New Testament in 1526 using the brand-new printing press… and was martyred 10 years later for doing so. 

The first English Bible to really catch on with the masses was the Geneva Bible of 1560, which was used by the first pilgrims to America. Why “Geneva”? Because the translators were hiding out in Switzerland so they wouldn’t meet Tyndale’s fate back in England.  

Their Bible proved so popular, however, that King James felt compelled to finally make an “authorized” English version. Released in 1611, it became the King James Version we know and love today. 

Why Study the Bible in Its Original Languages? 

The world has changed a lot in the thousands of years since the Bible was written. Making its ancient words comprehensible to a modern English reader is an enormous challenge, filled with countless choices about exactly the best way to render any given word or phrase. 

Here’s just one example among thousands that translators of the Bible have to contend with: our daily bread. 

Sounds simple, right? 

Our Daily, Necessary, Supersubstantial Bread for the Future 

In the original Greek of the Lord’s Prayer in Matthew 6:11, the phrase is “Τὸν ἄρτον ἡμῶν τὸν ἐπιούσιον” (ton arton hēmōn ton epiousion). Arton means “bread.” Hēmōn means “ours.” Epiousion means… well, no one knows for sure. Outside of the parallel passage in Luke 11:3, the word isn’t found anywhere else in ancient Greek — we’re talking thousands and thousands of documents. 

What did Jesus mean by it? 

The King James translators (and Tyndale before them) supplied “daily,” based mostly on an early Latin translation of the passage. But there isn’t really any reason to assume that’s what it means. 

A much more popular theory in the early church (including Jerome and Augustine) was that it meant something like “supersubstantial” — or spiritual — and referred to the bread of the Eucharist. This is still one of the preferred interpretations in the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. 

Other scholars (both ancient and modern) have suggested “necessary,” while still others proposed “for the future (or tomorrow).” 

But regardless of the translation or meaning you prefer, the point is that, in English, you have to pick one. When you read Matthew in its original Greek, however, you can sit much closer to the mystery — just as Christians have been doing for thousands of years — and wonder, what did God mean by that? 

After all, the words he chose are no accident. 

Conclusion: It’s All Greek — and Hebrew — to Us

Hopefully, this post has given you a better understanding of the languages the Bible was written in: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek — including some of the challenges that go into translating those languages for a modern, English-speaking audience.

Of course, taking the time to learn even one of those languages, let alone all three, is far beyond what most of our schedules would allow.

Fortunately, there are great resources available to help you understand the original meanings of the Bible, with limited or no linguistic training. You can read multiple translations side-by-side to see some of the different nuances in the way words are translated. You can pick up a Study Bible by a scholar (or several) who can read the original languages fluently and provides commentary on complex passages. And you can use a resource like the NIV Reverse Interlinear Bible to see the original words beneath the translation.

Better yet, why not try all three?

Sign up today for Bible Gateway Plus and get access to over 60 English Bible versions — plus dozens of Study Bibles, commentaries, and encyclopedias — including the NIV Reverse Interlinear — all for less than a pack of highlighters.

Jesus Bible Devotional 1: The Bible in Six Acts

Passion Publishing
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Jesus Bible Devotional 1: The Bible in Six Acts

Welcome to The Jesus Bible seven-day devotional! Over the next six posts, you will get a big-picture view of the full story of God — from Genesis to Revelation.

The Bible is filled with different characters, settings, wars, plagues, history-changing events, and countless stories. It covers thousands of years of recorded history. How does it all fit together?

Jesus. Jesus is the common thread that ties God’s story together.  

Who Is Jesus? A Lesson from Colossae

Colossians 1:15-20 

When Paul wrote his letter to the church in Colossae — what we know as the New Testament book of Colossians — he wrote to young Christians during a time of unrest. Colossae was a city along a significant trade route that had suffered from a major earthquake around AD 60-61. The church was young, rebuilding, and battling deceptive “philosophies” that threatened to leave it as fractured as a house built on a fault line (Colossians 2:8). 

What does Paul write to these new believers during this critical time? He reminds them who Jesus is:

  • The image of God (v. 15)
  • The creator of all things (v. 16)
  • Powerful enough to hold all things together (v. 17)
  • The head of the church (v. 18)
  • God’s fullness dwells in him (v. 19)
  • Through his death on the cross all things will be reconciled to God (v. 20)

What to Expect from The Jesus Bible Devotionals

In this series, we’ll examine the story of God in six acts — Beginnings, Revolt, People, Savior, Church, and Forever. We’ll uncover the truth of Paul’s words to the shaken believers: Jesus holds all things together.  

We will also seek to answer the question: What does God’s story have to do with me?

You will discover that your story connects with God’s by design. You have a role to play. Your life is treasured by your creator and of great significance for his work in the world. 

Reflection 

Do you think of your life as something that matters to God? Why or why not? 

This week, will you open yourself to the idea that God has a role for you to play in his story? 

Prayer 

Dear God, thank you for all that today’s verses reveal about Jesus. Thank you, God, for revealing yourself through him, and for reconciling my sin through his death. This week, help me to see how my life connects with your story. Open my heart to your Spirit’s leading. Amen. 

Read the rest of the Jesus Bible Devotional series — and go deeper with the full Jesus Bible Study Series.

Encounter the living Jesus in all of Scripture through The Jesus Bible — the Bible that lifts Jesus up as the lead story and encourages you to faithfully follow him as you participate in his story. Also available as part of Bible Gateway Plus!

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